Arrays , Objects and Functions

Arrays in JavaScript

Arrays in JavaScript are like ordered lists that:

• Start counting from 0 (e.g., first item is at position 0)
• Can grow or shrink in size
• Can store any type of data (numbers, strings, objects, even other arrays)
• Can be modified after creation

// Basic array creation and usage
const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
const mixed = ['text', 42, true, { key: 'value' }, [1, 2]];

Array Copy Behaviors

1. Reference Copy

The simplest form of copying - creates a new reference to the same array.

const original = [1, 2, {x: 3}];
const reference = original;  // Same array in memory

reference.push(4);
console.log(original);  // [1, 2, {x: 3}, 4]  (affected)
console.log(reference); // [1, 2, {x: 3}, 4]  (affected)

2. Shallow Copy

Creates a new array but maintains references to nested objects.

         Shallow Copy Visualization
    ═══════════════════════════════════

Original Array         Copied Array
┌──────────────┐      ┌──────────────┐
│    arr1      │      │    arr2      │
├──────────────┤      ├──────────────┤
│ [0]: 1       │      │ [0]: 1       │
│ [1]: 2       │      │ [1]: 2       │
│ [2]: ─────┐  │      │ [2]: ─────┐  │
└───────────┼──┘      └───────────┼──┘
            │                     │
            │   Heap Memory       │
            │  ┌────────────┐     │
            └─→│ {x: 10}    │←────┘
               └────────────┘

// Shallow copy methods
const original = [1, 2, {x: 3}];
const shallowCopy1 = [...original];     // Spread operator
const shallowCopy2 = Array.from(original); // Array.from()
const shallowCopy3 = original.slice();     // slice()

// Demonstrating shared references
shallowCopy1[2].x = 100;
console.log(original[2].x);     // 100 (nested object affected)

Spread Operator

const arr = [1, 2, 3];
const arr2 = [4, 5];
const arr3 = [6, 7];
const newArr = [...arr, ...arr2, ...arr3]; // Returns [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]

3. Deep Copy

Creates a completely independent copy with new references for all nested items.

         Deep Copy Visualization
    ═══════════════════════════════════

Original Array         Deep Copied Array
┌──────────────┐      ┌──────────────┐
│    arr1      │      │    arr2      │
├──────────────┤      ├──────────────┤
│ [0]: 1       │      │ [0]: 1       │
│ [1]: 2       │      │ [1]: 2       │
│ [2]: ─────┐  │      │ [2]: ─────┐  │
└───────────┼──┘      └───────────┼──┘
            │                     │
            │   Heap Memory       │
            │  ┌────────────┐     │  ┌────────────┐
            └─→│ {x: 10}    │     └─→│ {x: 10}    │
               └────────────┘        └────────────┘
               (Object #1)           (Object #2)

// Modern deep copy methods
const original = [1, 2, {x: 3}];

// Method 1: structuredClone (recommended)
const deepCopy1 = structuredClone(original);

// Method 2: JSON parse/stringify (with limitations)
const deepCopy2 = JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(original));

// Demonstrating independence
deepCopy1[2].x = 200;
console.log(original[2].x);  // Still 3 (unaffected)

Example

const users = [
    { id: 1, name: 'Alice', settings: { theme: 'dark' } },
    { id: 2, name: 'Bob', settings: { theme: 'light' } }
];

// Shallow copy behavior
const shallowUsers = [...users];
shallowUsers[0].settings.theme = 'light';
console.log(users[0].settings.theme);      // 'light' (affected)

// Deep copy behavior
const deepUsers = structuredClone(users);
deepUsers[0].settings.theme = 'dark';
console.log(users[0].settings.theme);      // 'light' (unaffected)

Array Methods

Common array methods can be categorized by whether they modify the original array:

Non-mutating Methods (Return new array)

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
arr.map(item => item * 2);     // Returns [2, 4, 6, 8, 10], arr unchanged
arr.filter(item => item % 2 === 0); // Returns [2, 4], arr unchanged
arr.reduce((acc, item) => acc + item, 0); // Returns 15, arr unchanged
arr.slice(1, 4);              // Returns [2, 3, 4], arr unchanged
arr.forEach(item => console.log(item)); // Returns undefined, arr unchanged
arr.join('-');                      // Returns '1-2-3-4-5', arr unchanged

Mutating Methods (Modify original array)

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
arr.splice(1, 2);             // Returns [2, 3], arr is now [1, 4, 5]
arr.push(6);                  // Returns new length 4, arr is now [1, 4, 5, 6]
arr.pop();                    // Returns 6, arr is now [1, 4, 5]
arr.forEach(item => {         // Returns undefined, can mutate arr if callback modifies it
    console.log(item);
});
arr.sort((a, b) => a - b);    // Returns sorted array, arr is now [1, 4, 5, 6].
// Note: sort() method modifies the original array.

Chaining Methods

Higher-order methods can be chained together for complex operations.

const products = [
    { name: 'Laptop', price: 1000, inStock: true },
    { name: 'Phone', price: 500, inStock: false },
    { name: 'Tablet', price: 300, inStock: true }
];

const totalInStock = products
    .filter(product => product.inStock)
    .map(product => product.price)
    .reduce((acc, price) => acc + price, 0);

console.log(totalInStock); // 1300

Array Loops

• Array loops are used to iterate over the elements of an array.

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
for (let i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
    console.log(numbers[i]);
}

forEach()

The forEach() method executes a provided function once for each array element.

// Basic syntax
array.forEach(function(element, index, array) {
    // Your code here
});

// Simple example
const numbers = [1, 2, 3];
numbers.forEach(num => console.log(num));  // Logs: 1, 2, 3

// With index
numbers.forEach((num, index) => {
    console.log(`Index ${index}: ${num}`);
}); // Logs: "Index 0: 1", "Index 1: 2", "Index 2: 3"

// With array
numbers.forEach((num, index, array) => {
    console.log(array);
}); // Logs: [1, 2, 3]

Key Features:

• Always returns undefined
• Cannot break or return from the loop
• Skips empty array elements
• Modifies the original array if the callback function does so

Common Use Cases:

// 1. Modifying objects in an array
const users = [
    { name: 'Alice', active: false },
    { name: 'Bob', active: false }
];
users.forEach(user => user.active = true);

// 2. Side effects (like DOM updates)
const items = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange'];
items.forEach(item => {
    const li = document.createElement('li');
    li.textContent = item;
    list.appendChild(li);
});

// 3. Accumulating values
let sum = 0;
[1, 2, 3].forEach(num => sum += num);

When to Use

Use forEach() when:

• You need to perform side effects
• You want to modify each array element
• You don’t need to break the loop early

Consider using map(), filter(), or reduce() when you need to:

• Create a new array based on transformations
• Filter elements
• Accumulate a single value

Objects

• Objects are collections of key-value pairs
• Keys are strings (or symbols), values can be any type of data
• Objects are mutable
• Objects are unordered

const user = {
    name: 'Alice',
    age: 25,
    isAdmin: true,
    "color": red
};

console.log(user.name); // Alice
console.log(user['age']); // 25
console.log(user["color"]); // red

Object Methods

const obj1 = {
    name: "Alice",
    age: 25
};

const obj2 = {
    name1: "Bob",
    age1: 30
};

const obj3 = {...obj1, ...obj2}; // Spread operator

console.log(obj3.name); // Alice
console.log(obj3.age1); // 30
console.log(obj3); // { name: 'Alice', age: 25, name1: 'Bob', age1: 30 }

• To learn more about the object methods, visit MDN.

Map and Set Collections

Map

• A collection that lets you store key-value pairs where keys can be of any type (objects, functions, primitives).
• Map is not iterable for in loop.

// Creating and using Maps
const userRoles = new Map();
userRoles.set('john', 'admin');        // Add entry
userRoles.get('john');                 // Get value: 'admin'
userRoles.has('john');                 // Check existence: true
userRoles.delete('john');              // Remove entry
userRoles.size;                        // Get size

// Iterating
for (const [user, role] of userRoles) {
    console.log(`${user} is ${role}`);
}

Common Use Cases:

• Caching/memoization results

// Example: Simple cache
const cache = new Map();
function expensiveOperation(input) {
    if (cache.has(input)) return cache.get(input);
    const result = /* complex calculation */;
    cache.set(input, result);
    return result;
}

Set

• A collection of unique values where duplicates are automatically removed.

// Creating and using Sets
const uniqueTags = new Set(['js', 'python', 'js']); // Duplicates removed
uniqueTags.add('java');                // Add value
uniqueTags.has('python');              // Check existence: true
uniqueTags.delete('js');               // Remove value
uniqueTags.size;                       // Get size

// Quick array deduplication
const array = [1, 2, 2, 3, 3];
const unique = [...new Set(array)];    // [1, 2, 3]

Common Use Cases:

• Removing duplicates from arrays
• Tracking unique visitors/events
• Managing selected items in UI

// Example: Tracking unique users
const activeUsers = new Set();
function trackUserActivity(userId) {
    activeUsers.add(userId);
    console.log(`Active users: ${activeUsers.size}`);
}

Quick Reference

• Use Map when you need key-value pairs with non-string keys
• Use Set when you need to maintain a list of unique values
• Both are iterable and have better performance than arrays/objects for frequent lookups

Destructuring

Destructuring allows you to unpack values from arrays or properties from objects into distinct variables. This syntax makes it easier to work with complex data structures.

Object Destructuring

// Basic destructuring
const person = { name: 'Alice', age: 25, city: 'London' };
const { name, age } = person;
console.log(name);  // 'Alice'
console.log(age);   // 25

// Destructuring with different variable names
const { name: firstName, age: yearsOld } = person;
console.log(firstName);  // 'Alice'
console.log(yearsOld);   // 25

// Default values
const { country = 'Unknown' } = person;
console.log(country);  // 'Unknown' (since it wasn't in person object)

Array Destructuring

// Basic array destructuring
const colors = ['red', 'green', 'blue'];
const [first, second] = colors;
console.log(first);   // 'red'
console.log(second);  // 'green'

// Skip elements using commas
const [,, third] = colors;
console.log(third);   // 'blue'

// Rest pattern
const [primary, ...rest] = colors;
console.log(primary); // 'red'
console.log(rest);    // ['green', 'blue']

Nested Destructuring

const data = {
    user: {
        id: 1,
        details: {
            firstName: 'Alice',
            lastName: 'Smith'
        }
    },
    scores: [10, 20, 30]
};

// Destructuring nested objects and arrays
const {
    user: {
        details: { firstName, lastName },
        id
    },
    scores: [firstScore, ...otherScores]
} = data;

console.log(firstName);    // 'Alice'
console.log(id);          // 1
console.log(firstScore);  // 10
console.log(otherScores); // [20, 30]

JSON

// JSON is a string representation of a JavaScript object.

{
    "name": "Alice",
    "age": 25,
    "data1":{
        "name1": "Bob",
        "age1": 30,
        "data2":{
            "name2": "Charlie",
            "age2": 35,
            "data3":{
                "name3": "David",
                "age3": 40
            }
        }
    }
}

// JSON.parse() is used to parse a JSON string and convert it into a JavaScript object.
// JSON.stringify() is used to convert a JavaScript object into a JSON string.

Functions

• Functions are blocks of code that perform a specific task.
• Functions can take input parameters and return output values.
• Functions can be used to organize code and make it more modular and reusable.

function add(a, b) {
    return a + b;
}

console.log(add(1, 2)); // 3

Functions with Objects and Arrays

Functions can work with complex data types like objects and arrays. Here are some common patterns:

// Object as parameter
function processUser(user) {
    return `${user.firstName} ${user.lastName} is ${user.age} years old`;
}

const user = {
    firstName: 'John',
    lastName: 'Doe',
    age: 30
};
console.log(processUser(user)); // "John Doe is 30 years old"

// Array as parameter
function calculateAverage(numbers) {
    const sum = numbers.reduce((acc, curr) => acc + curr, 0);
    return sum / numbers.length;
}

const scores = [85, 92, 78, 95, 88];
console.log(calculateAverage(scores)); // 87.6

// Returning an object
function createPerson(name, age) {
    return {
        name,
        age,
        greet() {
            return `Hello, I'm ${this.name}`;
        }
    };
}

// Returning an array
function splitAndSort(text) {
    return text.split(' ').sort();
}

console.log(splitAndSort('apple banana cherry')); // ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

Variable Scope

JavaScript has several types of scope:

• Global Scope: Variables accessible throughout the entire program
• Function Scope: Variables only accessible within their containing function
• Block Scope: Variables (using let/const) only accessible within their containing block

// Global scope
const globalVar = 'I am global';

function exampleFunction() {
    // Function scope
    const functionVar = 'I am function-scoped';

    if (true) {
        // Block scope
        const blockVar = 'I am block-scoped';
        console.log(blockVar);     // Works
        console.log(functionVar);  // Works
        console.log(globalVar);    // Works
    }

    console.log(functionVar);      // Works
    console.log(blockVar);         // ReferenceError: blockVar is not defined
}

console.log(globalVar);        // Works
console.log(functionVar);      // ReferenceError: functionVar is not defined

Best Practices

• Use const by default for variables that won’t be reassigned
• Use let when you need to reassign variables
• Avoid var as it doesn’t respect block scope and can lead to unexpected behavior
• Keep global variables to a minimum to prevent naming conflicts

Hoisting: A JavaScript Legacy Challenge

Hoisting is a JavaScript behavior where variable and function declarations are moved to the top of their scope during code execution. While it’s considered a bad practice in modern JavaScript, understanding it is crucial for maintaining legacy code.

// What developers write
console.log(myVar);  // undefined (doesn't crash!)
var myVar = "Hello";

// What JavaScript actually sees
var myVar;           // Declaration is "hoisted" up
console.log(myVar);  // undefined
myVar = "Hello";     // Assignment stays here

Why Hoisting is Problematic

1. Confusing Code Flow:

// Bad practice (but works due to hoisting)
calculateTotal(100);  // Works! But why?

function calculateTotal(amount) {
    console.log(amount * tax);  // undefined × 100 = NaN
    var tax = 0.2;             // Declaration hoisted, but not the value
}

// Better practice
const tax = 0.2;
function calculateTotal(amount) {
    console.log(amount * tax);  // Clear and predictable
}
calculateTotal(100);

2. Function Declaration vs Expression:

// Function declarations are fully hoisted
doSomething();  // Works!
function doSomething() {
    console.log("I'm hoisted!");
}

// Function expressions are not
doSomethingElse();  // Error!
const doSomethingElse = () => {
    console.log("I'm not hoisted!");
};

Legacy Code Examples

// Common in legacy code - relying on hoisting
function oldCodebase() {
    for(var i = 0; i < items.length; i++) {
        // var is hoisted to function scope
    }
    console.log(i);  // Still accessible! 😱

    if(true) {
        var secret = "123";  // Hoisted to function scope
    }
    console.log(secret);     // Accessible outside if block! 😱
}

// Modern approach
function modernCode() {
    for(let i = 0; i < items.length; i++) {
        // let has block scope
    }
    console.log(i);  // ReferenceError ✅

    if(true) {
        const secret = "123";  // Block scoped
    }
    console.log(secret);      // ReferenceError ✅
}

Why You Need to Know Hoisting

1. Many legacy JavaScript codebases rely heavily on hoisting
2. Understanding hoisting helps debug unexpected behavior in older code
3. JavaScript’s forgiving nature allowed bad practices to persist

Modern Best Practices

• Always use const or let instead of var
• Declare variables at the top of their scope
• Declare functions before using them
• Use linters (ESLint) to catch hoisting-related issues
• Consider TypeScript for stricter code organization

Arrow Functions vs Regular Functions

Arrow functions and regular functions have several key differences in syntax and behavior:

// Regular Function
function regularFunction(a, b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Arrow Function
const arrowFunction = (a, b) => a + b;

Key Differences

1. this Binding:

const obj = {
    name: 'Example',
    // Regular function
    regularMethod: function() {
        setTimeout(function() {
            console.log(this.name); // undefined
        }, 100);
    },
    // Arrow function
    arrowMethod: function() {
        setTimeout(() => {
            console.log(this.name); // 'Example'
        }, 100);
    }
};

obj.regularMethod(); // undefined
obj.arrowMethod();   // Example

2. Constructor Usage:

// Regular functions can be constructors
function Car(make) {
    this.make = make;
}
const myCar = new Car('Toyota'); // Works

// Arrow functions cannot be constructors
const CarArrow = (make) => {
    this.make = make;
};
const myCarArrow = new CarArrow('Toyota'); // TypeError

3. Arguments Object:

// Regular function has arguments object
function regular() {
    console.log(arguments); // [1, 2, 3]
}

// Arrow function doesn't have arguments
const arrow = () => {
    console.log(arguments); // ReferenceError
};

regular(1, 2, 3); // [1, 2, 3]
arrow(1, 2, 3); // ReferenceError

4. Implicit Return:

// Regular function needs explicit return
function addRegular(a, b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Arrow function with implicit return
const addArrow = (a, b) => a + b;

// Arrow function with object implicit return
const createObj = (name) => ({ name });

When to Use Each

• Use Arrow Functions for:

  • Short callback functions
  • Methods that don’t need their own this
  • Functional programming (map, reduce, etc.)

• Use Regular Functions for:

  • Object methods that need this
  • Constructor functions
  • When you need the arguments object
  • Event handlers where this should refer to the element

IIFE (Immediately Invoked Function Expression)

• IIFE is a function that is defined and executed immediately.
• It is used to create a new execution context and avoid polluting the global scope.

(function() {
    console.log('IIFE executed!');
})(); // IIFE executed!
// Parentheses are required to invoke the IIFE.
// Semicolons are required after IIFE to separate it from the next statement.

// Arrow functions can also be used as IIFE
(() => {
    console.log('Arrow IIFE executed!');
})(); // Arrow IIFE executed!